Oxygenisthemoleculeoflife.Avastarrayofintensivecareinterventionsaimtoimproveoxygendeliverytoend-organs.Inthischapter,wefocusonoxygendeliverytothelungs,thevariousoxygendeliverydevices(innon-intubatedpatients),andsomeofthesideeffectsofoxygentherapy.Long-termoxygentherapyisbeyondthescopeofthischapter.Insimpleterms,theamountofoxygentransferredfromthelungsintothebloodstreamcanbeincreasedinoneoftwoways:
Increasingtheinspiredoxygenconcentration(FiO2)
Increasingthemeanairwaypressure.
氧是生命的基础。目前有很多的ICU干预措施来提高氧输送,保证终末器官的氧代谢。在这一章中,我们主要讨论氧输送到肺部的方式、氧输送的设备(非气管插管患者)、氧的副反应。长程氧疗不在讨论范围内。简单来说,从肺部转移到血流当中的氧含量,可以通过以下方式来增加:
提高吸入氧浓度(FiO2)
提高平均气道压
Increasesinmeanairwaypressurecanbeachievedby:
Increasingtidalvolume(buthightidalvolumescanbedetrimental,asdiscussedinotherchaptersinthistext).
LengtheningtheI:Eratio
Addingorincreasingpositiveend-expiratorypressure(PEEP).
提高肺部平均气道压可以通过以下途径实现:
增大潮气量(但是大潮气量可能是有害的,其他章节会做讨论)
延长吸呼比
加用或提高呼气末正压(PEEP)
IncreasingPEEPisarguablythebestwaytoincreasemeanairwaypressure,especiallyinviewoftheotherbeneficialeffectsofPEEP.InspiredoxygenconcentrationscanalsobeeasilymanipulatedbychangingtheFiO2ontheventilatororbyusingdifferentoxygendeliverydevices.Knowledgeofcertainphysiologicprinciples,oxygendeliverydevicesandpathologicalconditionsthatmayimpairoxygendeliveryisparamount.
鉴于PEEP有一些益处,增加PEEP是目前最佳的提高气道压的方法,但是仍有一定争议。吸入氧浓度能够通过改变机器供氧情况而调整。氧输送的生理原理、氧输送设备和病理情况对氧输送的影响等理论知识是研究氧输送的基础。
Physiologyandpathology
Atthecellularlevel,oxygenisrequiredbymitochondriafortheaerobicformationofATP.Beforereachingthemitochondria,however,oxygenneedstocrossmultiplebarriersandexistindifferentphases.Dryatmosphericairatsealevelhasanoxygenpartialpressure(PO2)ofmmHg.Afterpassingthroughthealveoli,arterialblood,capillarycirculationandtheinterstitium,iteventuallyreachesthemitochondriawithaPO2of4to22mmHg.Thisseriesofpartialpressurereductionsiscalledtheoxygencascade.Administeringhigherinspiredoxygenconcentrationsaimsatpreventingtissuehypoxia,althoughthismaybeonlyoneofamyriadofinterventionsnecessarytoachievethisgoal.
生理和病理
细胞水平上,线粒体有氧代谢产生ATP需要氧分。在到达线粒体之前,氧需要跨域好几道屏障,存在数道程序。海平面干燥的大气产生的氧分压是mmHg。通过肺泡、动脉血、脉细血管循环和间质后,线粒体中的氧分压是4-22mmHg。这种氧分压的变化叫作氧气级联。提高吸入氧浓度是想要去避免组织缺氧,这只是众多干预手段中的一种。
Hypoxiacanbedetrimentalatboththetissueandorgansystemlevels.Thebrainseemstobethemostvulnerableorgantotheeffectsofacutehypoxia.Acutereductionsinarterialoxyhemogblobinsaturation,tovaluesbelow80%,cancauseconfusionandagitation,eveninhealthysubjects.Atthetissuelevel,lackofoxygendeliverycanleadtotheanaerobicformationofATP,aprocessthatinvolvesthegenerationoflacticacidandmayleadtometabolicacidosis.
低氧在组织和器官水平层面上都是有害的。脑组织最不耐受缺氧。急剧的缺氧使动脉氧饱和度低于80%的时候,即使在健康人当中,也会出现意识障碍和焦虑。在组织层面上,氧输送不足会引起ATP通过无氧酵解形成,这个代谢过程会产生乳酸,引起代谢性酸中毒。
Causesoftissuehypoxiacanbeclassifiedintofourmaincategories:
1.Hypoxemichypoxiaresultsfromlowlevelsofdissolvedoxygenintheblood.Lowinspiredoxygenconcentrations(e.g.athighaltitudes),respiratoryfailureandV/Qshuntscanallcausehypoxemichypoxia.
2.Anemichypoxiaisusuallycausedbylowhemoglobinlevelslimitingtheamountofchemicallyboundoxygenthatcanbedeliveredtothetissues.Carbonmonoxidepoisoningcanalsoreducetheamountsofhemoglobinabletocarryoxygentothetissuesleadingtoaformofanemichypoxia.
3.Stagnanthypoxiaoccurswhentheoxygencontentofbloodisnormal,butlackofadequatebloodflowresultsindecreasedoxygendelivery.Thiscanberegional(e.g.secondarytoperipheralvasculardisease)orglobal(incasesoflowcardiacoutput).
4.Histotoxichypoxiaoccurswhenoxygendeliveryisnormal,butthecellularorganellesandmitochondriaareunabletoutilizeoxygennormally.Cyanidepoisoningistheclassicalexampleofthisformofhypoxia.
组织缺氧可分为四种类型
1.低张性缺氧:溶解在血液中的氧减少。吸入氧浓度较低(比如高原),呼吸衰竭和V/Q比例失调能够引起低张性缺氧。
2.血液性缺氧:血红蛋白降低,携氧能力下降。CO中毒同样可引起降低血红蛋白将氧输送到组织当中,引起血液性缺氧;
3.循环性缺氧:氧含量正常,循环血量不足。这可以是局部的如外周血管病变(栓塞),也可以是全身性的(低心排综合征)
4.组织性缺氧:氧输送正常,但氧利用障碍。细胞器和线粒体无法利用氧。氰化物中毒是组织性缺氧的经典例子。
Deliverydevices
Aswithmostdrugs,oxygenadministrationrequirestitration.Prolongedperiodsofexcessiveoxygenadministrationcanbedetrimental.TitratingoxygentherapytoanSpO2of94to98%isre